If you decide to study sociology in college, you’ll take a close look at major sociological theories. Some sociological theories fall into the macro-sociological category, which examines widespread societal problems, like poverty. Others are micro-sociological theories, which explore issues on a more personal level or within smaller groups.
Some of the most widely studied sociological theories include the interactionist perspective, functionalist perspective and conflict perspective.
The interactionist perspective is a micro-sociological theory. Also known as symbolic interaction theory, it establishes some of the fundamental concepts used for much of the research conducted in the field. The interactionist perspective posits that humans derive meaning from the world around us as a social construct that is the result of daily social interaction.
In other words, this sociological theory explores how people use and interpret symbols as methods of interpersonal communication. It also examines how people develop self-identities both for themselves and to show to the outside world. In addition, this theory encompasses how people create and maintain their own deeply held truths and visions of reality.
The interactionist perspective has roots in the work of Max Weber, one of the founders of sociology.1 Weber’s theory was that humans will act based on how they interpret the world around them, indicating that action is based on and is secondary to meaning itself.
The functionalist perspective, also known as functionalism, is a macro-sociological theory. It explores the interconnected nature of the relationships between societal systems and structures. The functionalist perspective has roots in the work of noted sociologist Emile Durkheim.2 He was interested in the mechanisms through which society remains stable and how social order is perpetuated.
The functionalist perspective essentially argues that the structures and systems in society together are more than the sum of their parts. Much like a living creature, which needs both respiratory and circulatory systems to live, society needs each of its structural components to perpetuate itself. If you remove one component, such as education or public health, for example, then the larger society can no longer function as it once did.
This sociological theory acknowledges that society can evolve over time. If a new need arises, then a new system or structure can be formed to meet that need. For example, if a society recognizes that it is having trouble meeting its need for a stable workforce, then it may institute universal childcare benefits so that the parents in its population will be able to work.
Similarly, if a particular need no longer exists, then functionalism holds that the system or structure that traditionally meets that need will wither away. In some cases, a structure may diminish, but not disappear entirely. Consider how a country may ramp up its military capacity during wartime, and then reduce — but not eliminate — its military following the resolution of the conflict.
The conflict perspective, also known as conflict theory, has roots in the work of Karl Marx, who studied class conflict between the bourgeoisie (people of means and the affluent) and the proletariat (the working class and the poor).3 Marx argued that class-based conflict was inevitable because these two groups had interests that were not aligned and because resource distribution was uneven.
From a broader perspective, conflict theory examines the disparate groups of people within a society. These groups of people all have their own interests. From Marx’s view, revolution was an inevitable consequence of unequal power and resources.
It’s important to note that conflict perspective does not necessarily need to be limited to theories of class and social stratification. This sociological theory can be applied to any disparate groups of people. For example, a sociologist might study gender, political, racial or religious groups through the lens of conflict theory.
A specific example of an issue that might be examined through this lens could include the pay gap that exists in the U.S. between male and female employees performing the same job and with the same qualifications. Another issue that could be examined is how students from affluent families may be more likely to score well on exams because their families have opportunities that arise from financial resources, whereas students from working class families may fare more poorly in the education system.
